Are alienated young Muslims, born and bred in Europe, now ripe for radicalisation? In a new three-part series, the BBC's Islamic analyst Roger Hardy looks at four contrasting case studies

Four factors seem to be contributing to a trend that's apparent across the continent: • The emergence of a new generation of Muslims who feel excluded and marginalised • The rise of xenophobic right-wing parties hostile to immigration, especially Muslim immigration, and highly critical of traditionally liberal policies towards immigrant communities • The "globalisation" of Muslim issues, so that young Muslims in the West are much more closely in touch with events in Iraq, Palestine, Chechnya and other parts of the Muslim world • Active recruitment by radical groups of young Muslims who speak European languages and hold European passports

Western Europe is now home to some 15 million Muslims, most of whom are under 30. The London bombings last July and the riots in the suburbs of Paris in October and November have thrown a harsh spotlight on the continent's "new" Muslims.

In other words, a large number of young Muslims have a common set of local and global grievances - and a small number are ready to express these grievances by joining the global jihad, or holy war, being waged by Al-Qaida and other radical groups.

These shared grievances play out in very different settings.

Britain
Britain, home to 1.6 million Muslims (about 3% of the population), since the 1960s has pursued a mix of policies collectively known as "multiculturalism". Rejecting the idea of forced assimilation, policy-makers have sought to empower minority communities and enhance their sense of cultural identity.

But a series of crises, from the Rushdie affair in the late 1980s to the London bombings last year, have prompted soul-searching as to whether multiculturalism, though well intentioned, is working. Since coming to power in 1997, the New Labour government of Tony Blair has sought to be Muslim-friendly, while at the same time seeking to foster a collective commitment to British citizenship and, more controversially, British "values".

France
France, in contrast, has rejected what it sees as the Anglo-Saxon model of multiculturalism. Instead it promotes the ideal of French republican virtues, a key component of which is a strict separation of religion and state. But, with a Muslim population of perhaps five million (some 8% of the population), the French now find themselves face to face with a disenchanted Muslim underclass. Three weeks of rioting around Paris and other cities last autumn have sparked a fierce debate about future strategy.

Some... speak of a "continent in crisis", others... believe the current sense of panic is... overblown

The Netherlands
The Netherlands has a smaller Muslim population than either Britain or France (about one million, or 6% of the population) and has traditionally taken a liberal approach to minority communities. But the killing of controversial filmmaker Theo Van Gogh in November 2004 has strained this tolerance to breaking point. Most Dutch Muslims are of Moroccan or Turkish origin, but the focus of concern is on young Dutch-Moroccans - such as Mohammed Bouyeri, now serving a life sentence for the murder of Van Gogh.

Italy
Italy is different again. Its relatively small Muslim population (over one million, or about 2% of the population) has very diverse origins, comprising immigrants from the Maghreb, Egypt, Senegal, Somalia and elsewhere. Compared with Britain and France, Muslim immigration is relatively recent and few Muslims have acquired Italian citizenship.

In addition to familiar problems - finding work and accommodation and places of worship - the country's Muslims are now seen as a security threat. The presence of Italian troops in Iraq, although now being scaled back, has increased the sense of vulnerability to attack by Muslim extremists. Milan, in particular, has become a known recruiting-ground for followers of Abu Musab al-Zarqawi, leader of the self-styled Al-Qaida in Iraq.

Need for respect and recognition
How to enhance security while at the same time promoting social cohesion? It would be hard to maintain that any one country has got it right. There are some who speak of a "continent in crisis", and others who believe the current sense of panic is self-induced and over-blown. Most of Europe's Muslims, including the young, are non-violent and their core demands boil down to a need for respect and recognition. Failure to foster a minimum of dignity, however, will play into the hands of the extreme fringe.


Roger Hardy has worked for BBC World Service as a Middle East and Islamic affairs specialist for 20 years. His series on young Muslims in Europe will go out in March