Diagnosis

Methods of diagnosis changed massively during the course of the 19th century.

1. René Laennec (France: 1816) invented the stethoscope and started the practice of 'auscultation' (listening to the patient's chest).
2. Pierre Louis (France: 1834) argued that symptoms were irrelevant, and that what was happening inside the body was much more important when it came to diagnosing illness. As a result, doctors made diagnoses on the basis of a full clinical examination of the 'signs' made by the disease on the body.
3. Carl Ruge (Germany: 1878) developed the technique of biopsy (removing cells to determine if they were cancerous).
4. Doctors used machines to measure the functions of the body precisely:
   • Carl Ludwig (Germany: 1847) invented the kymograph (which measured the pulse).
   • Wilhelm Roentgen (Germany: 1895) discovered x-rays.
   • Willem Einthoven (Holland: 1900) invented the electrocardiograph (which measures heart activity).