Dr Mark Goldie, Churchill College, Cambridge

The English did nothing to resist William's invading army. They had become deeply alienated by James's promotion of Catholicism, a religion which commanded the allegiance of only about two per cent of the population. No parliament had been summoned since the early months of the king's reign, back in 1685. Protestants were fearful of James's friendship with King Louis XIV, master of Europe's new superpower, France, and they saw England becoming a client state of France, to be ruled by 'arbitrary power'.

The events of the summer of 1688 were the last straw. The king put seven Anglican bishops into the Tower. Though acquitted of sedition amidst great rejoicing, the king made no move to change his policies. His Italian consort, Queen Mary, had just given birth to a boy, the Prince of Wales, guaranteeing him a succession of Catholic Stuarts. At the end of June a group of seven leading politicians secretly invited William to intervene.

When James fled his kingdom leading lords set up an emergency government and took control. They quelled disturbances that had seen London mobs demolish the 'popish mass houses' during the frenzied 'Irish Night' of 11 December. Rumours and fears of the imminent arrival of a Catholic Irish army gripped the capital. But public order was quickly restored and by Christmas Day the lords had placed the administration in William's hands.

Catholic Churches attacked in London

Historians debate William's motives. Some say he had a deep-laid plan to seize the throne. Others say he chiefly wanted to swing the might of Britain against France, so that his beloved Holland could be protected and the cause of international Protestantism secured. Upon landing, he could not have known that James would flee.

The best he could hope for was to become Regent, forcing James to call a Parliament and change his policies. Only when James abandoned England did he decide to insist on the crown.

In January 1689 a Convention met: a parliament in all but name. William shrewdly avoided declaring himself king and left the settlement to the elected representatives. On 6 February the Convention agreed a famous declaration, that King James had 'endeavoured to subvert the constitution of the kingdom, by breaking the original contract between king and people', had 'violated the fundamental laws', and had 'abdicated'.

On the 13th the Convention offered the crown jointly to the prince and princess, as William III and Mary II, and a Declaration of Rights was read to them. Later that year the Declaration became law as the Bill of Rights, a manifesto of the freedoms of parliament and the citizen. It spelt out the right not to be imprisoned without trial, not to be subjected to 'cruel and unusual' punishments, not to be taxed without parliamentary consent.

The Convention also passed an Act of Toleration, allowing freedom of worship for all Protestants. Catholics were excluded, though now that Protestantism was secure the sting went out of anti-popery.

A paradoxical revolution was complete. Paradoxical because it was both a foreign invasion and a domestic rebellion. And paradoxical because it built a limited, parliamentary monarchy on the back of anti-popish attitudes.