On 4 June 1487, Henry VII's Yorkist enemies landed a small army on the coast of Cumbria. They had crowned the pretender Lambert Simnel as Edward VI in Dublin. Henry intercepted and defeated them at Stoke, near Newark on Trent.
Tudors
17 June 1487Henry VII defeats a pretender to his throne at the Battle of Stoke
On 4 June 1487, Henry VII's Yorkist enemies landed a small army on the coast of Cumbria. They had crowned the pretender Lambert Simnel as Edward VI in Dublin. Henry intercepted and defeated them at Stoke, near Newark on Trent.
24 February 1496Henry VII signs the 'Magnus Intercursus' trade treaty with the Netherlands
Chief among Henry VII's achievements was a series of treaties regulating England's foreign trade, which were to remain in effect well into the 17th century. The 'Magnus Intercursus' or 'Great Intercourse', signed with the Netherlands, was the most important of these treaties. The Netherlands was the key market for Tudor England's main export, woollen textiles.
2 April 1502Arthur, Prince of Wales dies, leaving his widow, Catherine of Aragon
Only six months after his marriage to Catherine of Aragon on 14 November 1501, the Prince of Wales died suddenly at Ludlow Castle. With the heir to the throne now dead, the 11-year old Henry, Duke of York, became first in line to the throne.
8 August 1503James IV of Scotland marries Margaret, daughter of Henry VII of England
The marriage of Henry VII's daughter, Margaret Tudor, to James IV of Scotland had been discussed since 1495 as a means of resolving the endemic tension between the English and Scottish crowns. It was finally concluded in 1502, together with the grandiosely-titled Treaty of Perpetual Peace. The marriage would give James IV's descendents a claim to the English throne, but that was a risk Henry was prepared to accept.
21 April 1509Henry VII dies and is succeeded by Henry VIII
The peaceful succession from father to son was in marked contrast to the turbulence of Henry VII's seizure of power at the end of the Wars of the Roses. Henry VIII came to the throne at the age of 17. He was widely regarded as intelligent, athletic and cultured. Two months after he became king, he married his brother's Spanish widow, Catherine of Aragon. Because Catherine was Henry's sister-in-law, a papal dispensation was required for the union to proceed.
9 September 1513James IV of Scotland is defeated and killed at the Battle of Flodden Field
While Henry VIII's forces were campaigning against the French king Louis XII, James IV of Scotland invaded England. He was met by an army under Thomas Howard. James IV led his army in an attack down the muddy, precipitous slope of Branxton Hill, near Flodden, Northumberland. Although his forces substantially outnumbered those of the English, they were ultimately encircled and massacred. James and many Scottish nobles were killed in the fighting. The infant James V became king.
1515Thomas Wolsey becomes a cardinal and Lord Chancellor
Thomas Wolsey rose from humble origins to become Henry VIII's chief minister. In 1515, the pope made him a cardinal and Henry appointed him lord chancellor. In 1518, Wolsey was made papal legate, making him effectively head of the English church. He was the most powerful man in England after the king. But when Wolsey proved unable to arrange the king's divorce from Catherine of Aragon, his fall was swift. He was stripped of his offices and died in 1530 on his way to face a charge of treason.
June 1521Henry VIII meets Francis I of France at the 'Field of the Cloth of Gold'
The first meeting of Henry VIII and Francis I of France took place just outside the English-held town of Guines near Calais, France. In a fortnight of ceremonies and entertainments, the English and French kings attempted to outshine each other with extravagant clothes and jewels, lavish tents and spectacular feasts, jousts and games. Although its diplomatic consequences were limited, it was dramatic evidence of the curious love-hate relationship between England and France.
17 October 1521The pope grants Henry VIII the title 'Defender of the Faith'
Pope Leo X conferred the title on Henry for his book 'Assertio Septem Sacramentorum' (Defence of the Seven Sacraments), which affirmed the supremacy of the pope. Since 1516, the reforming ideas of German theologian Martin Luther had spread through Europe and were seen as a major threat by the Catholic church. Protestantism reached England very quickly, but its growth was to be dramatically accelerated as a result of Henry's attempts to secure a divorce from Catherine of Aragon.
1527Henry VIII appeals to the pope to annul his marriage
By the mid-1520s, Henry VIII was desperate for a male heir. His wife, Catherine of Aragon, now in her 40s, had produced only one surviving child - Mary. He appealed to Pope Clement VII to annul his marriage so that he could marry Ann Boleyn instead. Henry claimed the union was illegitimate because the bible forbade him from marrying his brother's widow. The pope stalled, unwilling to anger Holy Roman Emperor Charles V, the most powerful ruler in Europe and Catherine's nephew.
29 February 1528First Protestant martyr is burned in Scotland
Patrick Hamilton studied theology in Europe, where he absorbed the reforming ideas of 'Protestant' German theologian Martin Luther. After returning to Scotland, Hamilton was charged with heresy and burned at St Andrews. There were only a dozen similar executions during the reign of James V. It was not until the minority of James’s daughter Mary (when she was too young to rule directly) that Protestantism really began to take hold in Scotland.
15 May 1532Church agrees to support Henry VIII in his confrontation with the papacy
After considerable pressure from Henry VIII and threats to allow parliament to reform the Church, the convocation of Canterbury province accepted the authority of the king over the English Church. Although only a minority of the members of Convocation actually agreed, this was a vital concession that forced the Church to support the king in his confrontation with the papacy over his wish to divorce Catherine of Aragon.
25 January 1533Henry VIII marries Anne Boleyn, following divorce from Catherine of Aragon
Henry VIII's frustration at the pope's refusal to grant him an annulment of his marriage to Catherine of Aragon came to a head in January 1533. He commanded Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer to declare the marriage void on the grounds that the union was illegitimate because Catherine was his brother's widow. This act was a major challenge to the authority of the pope. Then, in a secret ceremony at the palace of Whitehall, Henry married the pregnant Anne Boleyn.
11 June 1534Thomas Fitzgerald, Lord Offaly revolts against Henry VIII
Thomas Fitzgerald, Lord Offaly ('Silken Thomas'), renounced his office as lord deputy and declared himself Henry VIII's enemy as a result of inaccurate rumours that his father, the earl of Kildare, had been executed in London. But there was also growing disquiet in Ireland over Henry VIII's row with the papacy. The ill-planned revolt ended with Fitzgerald's execution, the destruction of the Kildare Fitzgeralds as a force in Irish politics and a permanent English military presence in Ireland.
November 1534Act of Supremacy makes Henry head of the English church
The Act of Supremacy confirmed Henry VIII as supreme head of the Church of England and separated the Church of England from the Roman Catholic Church. Henry himself was never a Protestant, but the break with Rome was a huge encouragement to Protestants in England.
6 July 1535Former Chancellor Sir Thomas More is executed for treason
Sir Thomas More, humanist scholar and author of 'Utopia', was found guilty of treason for refusing to swear to the Act of Succession (which made Ann Boleyn's daughter Elizabeth heir to the throne) because its preface undermined the authority of the pope. More had found himself increasingly at odds with Henry's stance towards Rome, such that he asked to be allowed to resign as chancellor. He refused to seek clemency and his execution was one of the most notorious acts of the Reformation.
1536 - 1540Henry VIII starts to confiscate and sell monasteries
As supreme head of the Church, Henry VIII began to confiscate monastic property, eventually suppressing all the religious houses in England and Wales. Ten thousand monks, friars, nuns and their servants were made homeless. Much of the property was sold on, mostly to local gentry. The cultural and social impact was significant, particularly as monasteries had been providers of support for the poor. Many parish churches were also stripped of ornament and local shrines were outlawed.
1536Act of union regulates England's relationship with Wales
The Laws in Wales Acts of 1535 and 1542 attempted to regularise the relationship between the two nations, by introducing the English legal system in Wales. The powerful and unruly 'Marcher' lordships which ran along the border were abolished and their territory divided between Welsh and English counties. English became the official language of administration. While effectively an annexation, the acts gave the Welsh parity under the law and were not generally unpopular.
1536Hans Holbein, a German artist, becomes painter to the king
Hans Holbein the Younger was a German artist whose arrival in England in 1526 had a significant influence in introducing the renaissance in painting from continental Europe. Holbein painted portraits of many members of Henry VIII's court, and in 1536 became painter to the king. His images of Henry have become iconic. Holbein died in London in 1543.
19 May 1536Henry VIII's second wife Anne Boleyn is executed
Henry VIII's desire to divorce his first wife, Catherine of Aragon, and marry Anne Boleyn was one of the driving factors in the Church of England's break with Rome. Nonetheless, Henry soon tired of her, particularly because she had failed to give him a male heir. Their only surviving child was a daughter, Elizabeth, born in September 1533. In May 1536, Anne was arrested on dubious charges of adultery, incest and treason. Found guilty, she was executed at the Tower of London.
4 August 1536Archbishop Thomas Cranmer receives the first Bible in English
The publishing of an English-language Bible under the king's patronage was the most radical consequence of Henry VIII's Reformation. The Bible itself was printed in the Netherlands, an operation organised by Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer and Henry's chief minister Thomas Cromwell. Ironically, it included the translation of the New Testament undertaken by the exiled Protestant reformer William Tyndale.
27 October 1536Pilgrimage of Grace disbands after meeting the duke of Norfolk
The summer of 1536 saw a series of popular risings in defence of the old religion, particularly with respect to the monasteries, in the north of England. The main body of the pilgrims marched as far south as Doncaster, where they were met by the duke of Norfolk. Trusting Norfolk's good faith as a mediator with the king they disbanded, only to suffer the king's revenge in subsequent months when the rebel leaders were executed.
12 October 1537A male heir, Edward, is born to Henry VIII and Jane Seymour
Eleven days after the execution of his second wife, Anne Boleyn, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour. She bore his only legitimate son to survive infancy and resolved the crisis surrounding the Tudor succession. Henry was shattered by her death shortly after Edward's birth. In his will he instructed that he be buried with her at Windsor.
1541Henry VIII changes his title from Lord of Ireland to King of Ireland
Under a scheme known as 'Surrender and Regrant', the Irish lords were persuaded to drop their traditional Gaelic titles and give up their lands, receiving them back from Henry VIII with English titles. This was an attempt to persuade them to accept English rule. The scheme enjoyed initial success and in Ulster, Conn Bacach O'Neill led the way by becoming the first Earl of Tyrone.
14 December 1542James V of Scotland dies, precipitating a succession crisis
Only six days after the birth of his daughter Mary, James V of Scotland, already depressed by his defeat to the English at Solway Moss on 23 November, died suddenly of cholera. His death precipitated a crisis in the government of Scotland. This was exacerbated by Henry VIII's wish to resolve the British succession by marrying Mary to his son Edward, either by treaty or by force.
28 January 1547Henry VIII dies and is succeeded by nine-year-old Edward VI
In the event of his death, Henry VIII had appointed a Council of Regency to govern the country for his young son. This was led first by Edward's uncle, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, then later by John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland. Northumberland and the young king were both in favour of the accelerated reformation of the Church. Protestant orthodoxy was enforced by a new and more stringent Act of Uniformity (1552).
10 September 1547English army wins the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh in Scotland
In order to enforce the marriage of Edward and Mary Stuart, Edward's uncle and lord protector, Edward Seymour, the Duke of Somerset, invaded Scotland in the summer of 1547. Despite being opposed by a much larger Scottish army along the River Esk, superior English firepower and the incompetence of the Scottish commander, the Earl of Arran (regent to Mary) gave the invaders a dramatic victory. This episode is also known as the 'War of the Rough Wooing'.
7 July 1548Franco-Scottish alliance is sealed with the Treaty of Haddington
In response to the English success at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh, Henry II of France sent substantial military assistance to Scotland. The price was the marriage of Mary to his heir, the Dauphin Francis. The marriage was agreed by the Treaty of Haddington. A month later, French warships transported Mary to France.
20 June 1549Norfolk Rebellion begins, the largest popular uprising of Tudor times
A dispute over hedges in the village of Attleborough near Norwich exploded into possibly the largest Tudor popular rebellion. Having captured Norwich, the rebels were only defeated in a pitched battle by an army sent from London. The rebellion arose over a complex number of issues, some local, some resulting from Edward Seymour, the Duke of Somerset's policies. Unlike the other popular risings of this period, it did not include a call for the return of the old church.
6 July 1553Edward VI dies and is succeeded by Lady Jane Grey
Before he died, Edward VI was persuaded by his regent, John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland to exclude his sisters Mary and Elizabeth from the succession and nominate Lady Jane Grey, a cousin, as queen. She was also Northumberland's daughter-in-law, which meant that he would remain the power behind the throne when Edward was gone. Four days after Edward died, Jane was proclaimed queen, but widespread popular support for Mary ensured her reign lasted only a matter of days.
19 July 1553Mary, an ardent advocate for a return to Catholicism in England, becomes queen
Daughter of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon, Mary had a difficult upbringing. Following the brief reign of Lady Jane Grey, Mary was proclaimed queen and on 3 August she rode into London unchallenged. Mary was the first woman to be crowned monarch of England in her own right. A devout Catholic, she was determined to halt the growth of Protestantism initiated by her father, and return England to Roman Catholicism.
7 February 1554Sir Thomas Wyatt leads a rebellion against Mary
Mary's proposed marriage to Philip of Spain provoked widespread discontent over fears that England would be subjugated by the Spanish. In Kent, there was there a popular rising led by Sir Thomas Wyatt. The rebels marched on London, where a handful of key peers who had remained loyal to Mary crushed the insurrection. The deposed queen, Lady Jane Grey and her father, the Duke of Suffolk, were executed to prevent them becoming a focus for future unrest.
25 July 1554Mary marries Philip of Spain despite widespread opposition
Despite widespread opposition to the marriage, Philip of Spain arrived in England in July. The union was celebrated at Winchester, possibly to avoid disturbances in London. No one, apart from Mary herself, believed there would be any children as a result of the marriage, because for Philip it was an entirely political alliance. His ambitions for the monarchy were regarded with great suspicion in England.
1 November 1555English Church in Geneva is founded by exiled Protestants
Mary's desire to return England to Catholicism led to the execution of hundreds of religious dissenters from 1556 on. Many communities went into exile, the most influential of which was the congregation at Geneva, Switzerland, where John Knox, the future leader of the Scottish reformation, became their minister. Their English translation of Protestant theologian John Calvin's service book became the Church of Scotland's Book of Common Order, and the form of worship chosen by English puritans.
21 March 1556Archbishop of Canterbury Thomas Cranmer is burnt for heresy
Executions for heresy by Mary I's government began in January 1555, the most famous of which were the burnings in Oxford of three leading church figures of the reign of Edward IV. Bishops Hugh Latimer and Nicholas Ridley were burned on 16 October 1555. Thomas Cranmer, who had approved the divorce of Henry VIII from Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, went to the stake the following March. Their martyrdom only added to the moral authority of the English Protestant church.
7 January 1558England's last French possession, Calais, is lost
After a siege lasting only six days, Francis, duke of Guise ordered an assault on the English-held town of Calais on the evening of 6 January 1558. Massively outnumbered and poorly provisioned, the English governor, Lord Wentworth held out until the following morning before surrendering. The outlying fort at Guines held out until the 21 January, but Wentworth's capitulation marked the end of two hundred years of English occupation. The disaster seriously demoralised Mary's government.
17 November 1558Mary dies and Elizabeth I accedes to the throne
Mary became terminally ill in August 1558 and died early in the morning on 17 November. Soon afterwards the news reached her half-sister Elizabeth, then living at Hatfield House, Hertfordshire. Throughout her reign, Mary had viewed the Protestant Elizabeth as a threat, but she made no effort to prevent her succeeding to the throne, such that parliament had informally recognised her as the future queen the week before Mary's death.
11 May 1559John Knox ignites the Scottish rebellion at Perth, Scotland
Protestant theologian John Knox returned to Scotland from exile on 2 May 1559. Days later he preached against idolatry at Perth, sparking a riot in which monasteries were sacked and a number of royal tombs desecrated. Outraged, Mary of Guise, regent for her young daughter Mary Stuart (Mary I of Scotland) determined to restore order by force. Her heavy-handed response triggered a popular rallying in the defence of 'the godly'.
24 June 1559Book of Common Prayer becomes the only legal form of worship
Under the Act of Uniformity of 1559, only the new hastily-printed Book of Common Prayer, a revision of Edward VI's Protestant prayer book of 1552, was to be used in parish churches in England and Wales after St John's Day (24 June). The Catholic mass or any other form of worship (including the Geneva service book) was henceforth illegal.
6 July 1560Treaty of Edinburgh is signed between England and France
In March 1560, an English army entered Scotland to aid the Scottish rebellion in forcing out the pro-regency French garrison at Leith. After the death of the regent, Mary of Guise, on 11 June, the English and the French agreed a treaty under which the Leith garrison was withdrawn. Mary Stuart (Mary I of Scotland), who as the wife of Francis II had lived at the French court since the age of five, refused to ratify the treaty. This infuriated Elizabeth I and overshadowed their future relations.
19 August 1561Mary Stuart returns to Scotland
Mary Stuart (Mary I of Scotland) had lived in the French court since the age of five and had married the future king, Francis II, in 1558. Widowed in December 1560, Mary returned from France to Scotland at the age of eighteen. Scotland had been a Protestant country since 1560 and as a Catholic she was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects. She took her Protestant half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, as chief advisor and initially exercised moderation and religious tolerance.
1562English mariners enter into the slave trade
On a voyage to West Africa, Captain John Hawkins, a trader and naval commander, became the first English slave trader. Hawkins captured or purchased a number of people in Africa and sold them on as slaves in the Caribbean. It would be nearly 250 years before an act of parliament banned the trade.
29 July 1565Mary Stuart marries her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley
Mary Stuart (Mary I of Scotland) married her cousin Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley in a Catholic ceremony in Edinburgh. He had recently been created Duke of Albany and now acquired the title 'King of Scots'. The marriage took place in the face of opposition from Elizabeth I of England and led to an open revolt by her half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray and other Protestant Scottish lords. They were routed in the so-called Chaseabout Raid and went into exile.
9 March 1566Mary Stuart's secretary is murdered by a gang of noblemen
The close friendship of Mary Stuart (Mary I of Scotland) with her Catholic Italian secretary David Rizzio caused jealousy and resentment among some Scottish noblemen. Mary, then around six months pregnant, was having supper with friends at Holyrood House, Edinburgh, when a group of noblemen, including her husband Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, burst in and stabbed Rizzio to death.
10 February 1567Mary Stuart's husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, is killed
The husband of Mary Stuart (Mary I of Scotland), Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, was killed in mysterious circumstances when the house in which he was staying was destroyed by a massive explosion. Precisely by whom he was killed and the extent of Mary's involvement remains unclear, but Mary's decision to marry James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell and one of the chief suspects in Darnley's murder, did immense damage to her reputation.
24 July 1567Mary Stuart abdicates
Following the marriage of Mary Stuart (Mary I of Scotland) to James Hepburn, Earl of Bothwell, the Scottish nobility rebelled. She was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle and forced to abdicate in favour of her infant son James (crowned James VI). She escaped in May 1568 and raised an army, which was decisively beaten at the Battle of Langside, south of the river Clyde, by forces under the command of her half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray.
16 May 1568Mary Stuart arrives in England and demands help against the Scottish rebels
After the defeat of Mary Stuart's army at the Battle of Langside, near Glasgow, on 13 May, she fled to England and demanded Elizabeth I's support in reclaiming her throne. Elizabeth refused until Mary had established her innocence in the murder of her husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. The inquiry found that guilt could not be proven, but Mary was nonetheless detained in England where she would become the focus of many plots to overthrow Elizabeth.
January 1569Forfeiture of O'Neill lands opens the way for English colonisation of Ulster
A major issue for discussion at the second Irish parliament of Elizabeth's reign, in January 1569, was the attainder of Shane O' Neill, chief of the Ulster O'Neill clan. A longstanding enemy of England, he had been killed by the rival MacDonell clan on 2 June 1567. The attainder (the forfeiture of O'Neill's lands to the crown) opened Ulster to English colonisation. Its impact on Ireland was as dramatic as the destruction of the Fitzgerald clan in the 1530s.
14 November 1569Northern earls rebel in support of Mary Stuart
The rebellion of northern Catholics was led by Thomas Percy, Earl of Northumberland, and Charles Neville, Earl of Westmorland. Its apparent objective was to replace Elizabeth I as queen of England with Mary Stuart. The rising was crushed, Westmorland fled into exile and Northumberland was captured and executed.
25 February 1570Papal bull declares Elizabeth I a heretic
Pope Pius V signed the bull 'Regnans in Excelsis', excommunicating Elizabeth I and declaring that her subjects owed her no allegiance. It was an attempt by the papacy to throw its weight behind the rebellion of northern earls in 1569. News of the bull arrived after the rebellion had already been put down. It encouraged Elizabeth to abandon religious toleration and allow the Church of England to become more expressly Protestant.
23 January 1571Elizabeth I opens the Royal Exchange
Between 1566 and 1569, Sir Thomas Gresham and the Corporation of London had erected a shopping and commercial complex in Bishopsgate. It was modelled on the Antwerp bourse (exchange). In January 1571, Elizabeth visited London and renamed Gresham's building the Royal Exchange, a clever gesture associating the crown with the commercial prosperity of London.
17 July 1579James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald returns to Ireland to raise a revolt
With financial support from the papacy and ships supplied by Philip II of Spain, the exile James Fitzmaurice Fitzgerald returned to Ireland to raise a revolt against the English. Fitzmaurice was killed shortly afterwards, but the landing triggered a series of risings, forcing England into an expensive conflict that lasted until 1583. His was also the first rebellion to use the Catholic faith as its explicit justification. The conflict significantly embittered Anglo-Irish relations.
17 August 1579François, Duke of Anjou proposes marriage to Elizabeth I
Elizabeth I's reluctance to marry was a worry to her advisers, who wanted to ensure a peaceful, Protestant succession. Many suitors were proposed, with François, Duke of Anjou and brother of the French king, the most credible. In August 1579 he spent a fortnight visiting Elizabeth at Greenwich and they developed a good rapport. But there was widespread opposition to the match and Anjou returned home disappointed. Elizabeth did have favourites, most notably Robert Dudley, Earl of Leicester.
c. 26 September 1580Francis Drake arrives at Plymouth after circumnavigating the world
Francis Drake was commissioned by Elizabeth I to undertake a secret voyage against Spanish interests in the Americas. He left England on 15 November 1577 in his flagship 'Pelican' - soon renamed 'Golden Hind' - in a five-ship fleet. He returned three years later, with 59 surviving crew, as the first Englishman to circumnavigate the globe. Elizabeth's share of the booty reputedly equalled the crown's annual expenditure for a year. Drake was knighted the following spring.
31 December 1580Earl of Morton is arrested in connection with Lord Darnley's murder
On the last day of 1580 the former regent of Scotland and anglophile, James Douglas, Earl of Morton, was arrested and charged with complicity in the murder of Mary Stuart's husband, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, in 1567. Elizabeth I wanted to save him but may have been given a verbal promise by the young James VI that his life would be spared. Morton was executed on 2 June 1581 and Elizabeth never fully trusted James again.
1 December 1581Father Edmund Campion is executed for treason
Although there were other executions of Catholic priests for treason, the hanging, drawing and quartering of the Catholic missionary Edmund Campion for raising sedition was particularly notorious. Campion arrived in England on 24 June 1580 and boldly ministered to Catholics until his arrest in July 1581. Whether he was deliberately courting martyrdom remains unclear. The campaign against Catholic missionary clergy lasted for another decade.
2 August 1585First Treaty of Nonsuch sparks conflict with Spain
The treaty of assistance to the United Provinces (a collection of territories in the Low Countries) was signed at the Palace of Nonsuch in Surrey. It provided English military aid for the relief of Antwerp, which was besieged by Spanish forces. Antwerp fell on 17 August. Nonetheless, the treaty was perceived as an act of war by Philip II of Spain and would lead, by a series of events, to sending of the Armada to invade England.
8 February 1587Mary Stuart is executed
In 1586, Mary Stuart had been implicated in the Babington Plot to murder Elizabeth I and found guilty of treason. Mary had been the focus of a number of plots to overthrow Elizabeth, but this was the first that Mary could be shown to have known about and had probably condoned. Elizabeth's advisors knew that while Mary was alive, Elizabeth was in danger. Mary was executed at Fotheringhay Castle in Northamptonshire after Elizabeth finally consented to sign the death warrant.
8 August 1588English disperse the Spanish Armada at the Battle of Gravelines
Elizabeth’s support for Spain's enemies and persistent English raids on Spanish shipping led to war with Spain from 1585. In 1588, Philip II of Spain sent a huge Armada to invade England. English ships harried the Armada up the Channel, then attacked it as it lay at anchor off Calais, France. The Armada was dispersed and could only return home by circumnavigating the British Isles. The voyage shattered the fleet, with at least 30 ships wrecked on the Scottish and Irish coasts.
14 August 1598Irish forces defeat the English at the Battle of Yellow Ford
The Nine Years War broke out in 1594 when the territorial ambitions of Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, clashed with those of England. At the Battle of Yellow Ford in 1598, English forces suffered a heavy defeat, with 2,000 killed, including their commander, Sir Henry Bagenal. In late 1601, the English routed the rebels at the Battle of Kinsale, but it would still take more than a year to finally subdue the rebellion.
31 December 1600British East India Company receives its charter from Elizabeth I
The purpose of the British East India Company was to form trade links with southern and eastern Asia, and challenge Dutch and Portuguese dominance in the spice trade. The company was to become the major force in British imperial expansion in the 17th and 18th centuries. Its influence was particularly important in establishing British control of the Indian sub-continent.
8 February 1601Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex attempts to seize London
Robert Devereux, Earl of Essex was a great favourite of Elizabeth I. Throughout the 1590s he traded on his popularity, persuading the queen to appoint him lord lieutenant of Ireland in 1599. His military campaign during the Irish Nine Years' War ended in a humiliating and unauthorised truce with the rebel Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone. Furious, Elizabeth stripped him of his titles. He raised a rebellion, but was captured and executed for treason on 25 February.
30 March 1603Nine Years' War ends with the surrender of the Irish
At Mellifont Abbey near Dublin, Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone brought to an end the Nine Years' War by formally accepting Elizabeth I's authority. Although the lord deputy, Charles Blount, Lord Mountjoy knew the queen had already died, he suppressed the news to prevent Tyrone appealing to the new king, James I, for better terms. In 1607, lands were confiscated from the rebellious earls after they fled Ireland, making way for the plantation of Ulster (a system of colonisation).
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